The U.S. Government Accountability Office (GAO) reports that while technologies like batteries and semiconductors are vital to the U.S. economy, they heavily rely on imports of critical minerals such as lithium and gallium.

Substitution and recycling technologies show promise for reducing this import reliance. For batteries, substitution with lithium iron phosphate could decrease reliance on cobalt, manganese, and nickel in 2 to 3 years, and mature recycling technologies offer a similar timeframe for copper, cobalt, lithium, and nickel. However, U.S. battery recyclers currently lack sufficient capacity. For semiconductors, substitution and recycling technologies are likely years from maturity, with substitutes needing to match current material performance, and recycling facing challenges like an underdeveloped market.

GAO identified four policy options to support these technologies: establishing domestic manufacturing capacity for substitutes, building domestic recycling infrastructure, securing inputs for recycling, and supporting research, development, and testing. These options, alongside potential non-technological approaches like increased domestic mining, could help reduce U.S. import reliance in the near, medium, or long term. The U.S. considers 60 minerals critical due to their economic importance and vulnerable supply chains.